Semi Empirical Formula For Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay

Semi Empirical Formula For Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay Abstract A Semi empirical formula for both phase space factor and Nuclear Matrix Element (NME) is developed for neutrinoless double beta decay, and the formula is used to compute the neutrinoless double beta decay half lives. The computed half lives for neutrinoless double beta decay are compared with the corresponding experimental values and with those predicted by QRPA model. The semi empirical formula predictions are found to be in good agreement with experimental data. The semi empirical formula is used to predict neutrinoless double beta decay of various isotopes Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm that exhibiting single beta decay. As our semi empirical formula predictions agree with the experimental data we hope that the present work will be useful for the future experiments. Keyword: Neutrinoless double beta decay, Nuclear Matrix Element Introduction Double beta decay is a radioactive decay process where a nucleus releases two beta rays as a single process. Here two neutrons in the nucleus are converted in to two protons and in the process two electrons and two electron antineutrinos are emitted. In order for beta decay to be possible the final nucleus must have larger binding energy than the original nucleus. Double beta decay is difficult to study in most practically interesting cases, because both beta decay and double beta decay are possible, with probability favouring beta decay. The double beta decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change the mass number A. More than 60 naturally occurring isotopes are capable of undergoing double beta decay. Double beta decay is of two types; the two neutrino and neutrinoless double beta decay. The two neutrino double beta decay [2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½)] which involves the transformation of two neutrons into two protons conserves not only the electric charge but also the lepton number. On the other hand neutrinoless double beta decay [2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½)] violates lepton number conservation and is therefore forbidden in the standard electroweak theory. According to this theory neutrinos are massless. The observation of neutrino mass and oscillation is a clear example of a phenomenon at variance with the standard model. There are different models for explaining the double beta decay process. Among them, two methods are mainly used to calculate Nuclear Matrix Elements (NME) for 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decays. One is the family of Quasi particle Random Phase Approximation (QRPA) [1]. This method has been used by different groups and varieties of techniques are employed with results for most of the possible emitters [2]. The other method concerned to double beta decay process is the interacting shell model (ISM) [3]. It has been shown that as the difference in deformation between parent and daughter grows, the NME’s of both the neutrinoless and two neutrino mode decreases rapidly. The interest in double beta decay spans more than six decades. In 1937 Racah [4] following the fundamental suggestion of Majorana [5], discussed the possibility of a neutrinoless transformation of two neutrons into two protons plus two electrons. Even earlier Geoppert-Mayer [6] evaluated the decay rate of 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) mode and realized that the corresponding half lives could exceed 1020years. Furry [7] shortly afterwards estimated that 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) should be much faster than 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) decay. Thus the stage was set for the realization that observation of the 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay would establish that the neutrino is a massive Majorana particle. In 1982 J. Schechter-Valle while regarding 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay suggested the existence of Majorana mass of the neutrino in the frame work of Gauge theories [8]. In 1984 Fiorini et al [9] introduced a program to develop low temperature detectors for 2ÃŽ ² decay search. Next year Doi et al [10] made a fundamental theoretical analysis of 2ÃŽ ² deca y to obtain the main formulae for probability of decay, energy and angular electron spectra. In 1986 using QRPA model Vogel et al [11] gave satisfactory agreement between theoretical and experimental 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) half life values. Neutrinoless double beta decay is of great interest for studying the fundamental properties of neutrino beyond the standard electro-weak theory. High sensitivity 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) studies are the unique and practical ways for studying the Majorana nature of neutrinos, the neutrino mass spectrum, the absolute neutrino mass scale, the majorana CP phases and other fundamental properties of neutrinos in the foreseeable future. The first experiment [12] to claim 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) is the Klapdor, HM experiment done in the year 2001. Numerous experiments like COBRA, GERDA etc have been carried out to search neutrinoless double beta decay and 48Ca, 76Ge, 82Se, 96Zr, 100Mo, 116Cd, 128Te, 150Nd, 238U are some of the isotopes exhibiting neutrinoless double beta decay [13-17]. For the double beta decay processes, two crucial ingredients are the phase space factors and the Nuclear Matrix Elements (NME). A general theory of phase space factors was developed by Doi et al. [18, 19] following the previous work of Primakoff and Rosen [20], and Konopinski [21]. It was reformulated by Tomoda [22] by approximating the electron wave functions at the nuclear radius and without inclusion of electron screening. The Nuclear Matrix Element depends on the nuclear structure of the nuclei involved in the decay. The expression for Nuclear Matrix Element can be written in general as the sum of three components [23] as (1) Where, , , are the Gamow-Teller, Fermi and tensor components respectively. is the axial vector coupling constant and is the vector coupling constant. The present work aims to develop a semi empirical formula for both phase space factor and Nuclear Matrix Element for computing the neutrinoless double beta decay half life. By using this formula we would like to predict the possibility of 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay from various isotopes exhibiting single beta decay. The details of the semi empirical formula are given in Section 2 and results, discussion and conclusion are given in Section 3. The semi empirical formula In the standard scenario, when 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay process occurs by exchange of light Majorana neutrinos between two nucleons inside the nucleus, and in the presence of left handed weak interactions, the life time expression can be written as a product of three factors and is given as [24] (2) Where G0ÃŽ ½ is the phase space factor for this decay mode, is the effective neutrino mass parameter, me is the electron mass and M0ÃŽ ½ are the Nuclear Matrix Elements depending on the nuclear structure of the nuclei involved in the decay. The phase space factor depends on the energy decay QÃŽ ²ÃŽ ² and nuclear charge Z and studied the dependence of phase space factor with ZQ3 and Z2Q6 for various isotopes undergoing neutrinoless double beta decay. From the observed dependence of phase space factor taken from ref [25], with ZQ3 and Z2Q6 we have developed a semi empirical formula for the phase space factor. Using ZQ3, Z2Q6 and Z3Q9 as variables, a new formula is obtained and is given as, (3) The constants are, , , Due to the two-body nature of the transition operator, the NMEs can also be expressed as a sum of product of two-body transition densities (TBTDs) and matrix elements of the two-body transition operators for two-particle states. We have studied the dependence of nuclear matrix element values taken from [26] with Z-1/3 for various isotopes undergoing neutrinoless double beta decay and a new formula is obtained by making least-squares fit to the nuclear matrix elements data and is given as, (4) The constants are, , ,, , , The comparison of the computed nuclear matrix elements using the present formula with the values of Ref [26] and comparison of computed phase space factor with the values of Ref [25] are shown in Table 1. Results, discussion and conclusion The Q value for double beta decay of mother nuclide with mass mm to the daughter nuclide with mass md is given by the mass difference [27] which in turn can be written as a function of frequency ratio and the electron mass me; (5) In the present work Q values are computed using the experimental binding energies of Audi and Wapstra [28]. The present empirical formula is applied for all the observed neutrinoless double beta decay isotopes. Column 7 of Table 1 represents the computed half-lives for neutrinoless double beta decay of various isotopes and is compared with the experimental values given in column 8 and QRPA values [26] in column 9. It is found from the table that our formula predictions are in good agreement with the experimental values and the QRPA values. The value of ÃŽ ½> is taken as 50meV and is obtained from Rodin et al [25]. We have applied the present formula for computing the phase space factor, Nuclear Matrix Element and half lives for various isotopes that exhibiting single beta decay. Tables 2 represents the computed Q values, Phase space factors, Nuclear Matrix Elements and half lives for neutrinoless double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm isotopes. As our semi empirical formula prediction agree with the experimental data we hope that our prediction on neutrinoless double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm isotopes will be a guide for future experiments.  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­ Table 1. The computed, and for neutrino less double beta decay of various isotopes and their comparison with the experimental, QRPA and Ref [26] values _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Table 2. The computed Q values, Phase space factors, nuclear matrix elements and the predicted half lives for neutrino less double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm, Gd and Pt isotopes ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Table 2. Continued†¦.. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 103Mo 6408.8 1.10330E-11 3.47678 7.83E+23 104Mo 7759.0 6.71620E-11 3.47678 1.29E+23 105Mo 8588.0 1.72446E-10 3.47678 5.01E+22 106Mo 10067 7.43636E-10 3.47678 1.16E+22 107Mo 11430 2.37009E-09 3.47678 3.65E+21 109Pd 901.0 1.92669E-15 2.56879 8.22E+27 110Pd 2004.0 7.81588E-15 2.56879 2.03E+27 111Pd 3253.5 2.48567E-14 2.56879 6.37E+26 112Pd 4244.5 2.49383E-13 2.56879 6.35E+25 113Pd 5359.3 2.60657E-12 2.56879 6.07E+24 114Pd 6523.9 1.74643E-11 2.56879 9.06E+23 115Pd 7690.5 8.20373E-11 2.56879 1.93E+23 116Pd 8759.0 2.73683E-10 2.56879 5.78E+22 117Pd 9895.0 8.38279E-10 2.56879 1.89E+22 118Pd 11239 2.67934E-09 2.56879 5.91E+21 114Cd 540.1 1.30076E-15 2.37189 1.43E+28 115Cd 1945.5 7.60027E-15 2.37189 2.44E+27 116Cd 2809.1 1.46594E-14 2.37189 1.27E+27 117Cd 3975.0 1.46594E-14 2.37189 1.25E+26 118Cd 4947.1 1.48733E-13 2.37189 1.37E+25 119Cd 6158.4 1.35555E-12 2.37189 1.61E+24 120Cd 7131.1 1.15360E-11 2.37189 4.01E+23 121Cd 8144.1 4.62494E-11 2.37189 1.17E+23 122Cd 9215.9 1.59314E-10 2.37189 3.73E+22 123Cd 10510.5 4.97662E-10 2.37189 1.12E+22 124Cd 11526.8 1.65584E-09 2.37189 4.84E+2

Evolution of Bipedality in Humans Essay

Bipedalism is a capacity, mostly associated to humans, to use two legs in locomotion. Its origin has been given importance and served as a topic of long debate among experts due to the possibility that this form of locomotion gave way for the development of modern human characteristics. Thus, a lot of theories were proposed and established in order to provide the logical explanation on its origin and development. The burden of dealing with this classical issue lies on the fact that locomotion is an activity that can not be fossilized. However, the Australopithecus afarensis fossils, the earliest hominid from Ethiopia and Tanzania, were found to live 3 million years after the appearance of hominid lineage around 6. 5 million years ago (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). These fossils in a way may serve as evidence not only of bipedal locomotion but also hominid dental characteristics similar to apes. Bipedalism enabled humanoids to create tools used for the sustenance and defense of life and is also observed in other animal species (Dhingra and Jablonski, 2004). This trait is commonly attributed as a product of evolution for it coincided with the physiological development of the human brains. As such, bipedal locomotion has gone a very long and different history within animal kingdom. Bipedal Locomotion Human locomotion is described as a smooth flow of a series of actions including swing and stance phases (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). In the swing phase, one leg shoves off through the toe then swings in slightly flexed position. As the foot creates contact on the ground through the heel, the leg becomes and remains extended to support the body. Then, as the leg moves in the swing phase, the body moves in the stance phase. On the other hand, chimpanzees are not capable of extending their knee-joints for a straight leg in the stance phase. They exert muscular power to support their bodies while their leg flexed gait denotes lack of toe off and heel strike in the swing phase. The human anatomical structure is fully developed for terrestrial locomotion while chimpanzee anatomy is adapted for climbing and knuckle walking (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). Human anatomical adaptations include extensive and curved lower spine, a shorter and broader pelvis, a longer lower limbs and enlarged joint surface areas. In the swing phase, the weight of the body is shifted to the supporting leg while the balance is maintained at the unsupported side in the stance phase through contraction of gluteal abductor muscles in the hip. In chimpanzees, the gluteal abductors are not fully developed and their thigh bones do not slope inwards as in humans. Their feet are normally a little bit apart and in walking, they tend to shift their upper bodies from side to side so as to transfer the weight on each leg. It is a fact then that chimpanzees and gibbons can move through bipedal locomotion. Thus, as viewed by anthropologists, bipedalism is a hominid distinct adaptive capability (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). Humanoids spend less energy through bipedalism than quadrupedalism because at a normal walking speed, the legs in a forward motion swing like pendulum then bringing back the forward momentum by slowing the swing foot before the fall (Hawks, 2005). Hence, this requires less muscular activity and energy than knuckle-walking. Moreover, bipedalism raises the head which gives a sharp range vision around the environment and making hands available for carrying tools, food items or other works. However, for early humanoids, bipedalism can offer disadvantages (Hawks, 2005). Without the ability to grasp through feet makes them unsecured from their predators. The loss of grasping foot made difficult for the early humanoids to climb through tress and escape predators, and for their young in clinging to their parents. Researches Findings Biologist and anthropologists have debated over bipedalism and proposed different hypotheses for possible explanation. However, these theories have their respective strengths and weaknesses on the plausible understanding with bipedal locomotion. Most of these theories correlated bipedalism to the animal species’ ventures on the savannah areas and was supported by the discovery of Lucy, a 3. 5 feet humanoid (Johanson, n. d. ). Standing up in savannah gives stunted humanoids a vigilant view on possible threat from their predators. Standing up in reaching out for foods is another possible explanation. In addition, an upright posture may also help our ancestors in cooling their bodies against the sultry environment. In the postural feeding hypothesis of Hunt (1994), bipedalism has evolved from the early habitual bipedal locomotion of humanoids due to arboreal food gathering. The behaviour of chimpanzees and the anatomical structures of australopithecine conformed to this ecological model. Eighty percent of bipedal locomotion in chimpanzee was observed during feeding with arm-hanging stabilizing the posture. In addition, the upper body anatomical structures of australopithecines were ascribed to arboreal bipedal fruit gathering adaptation. The behavioural model of Lovejoy (1981), on the other hand, attributed bipedalism to the social, sexual and reproductive behaviours of early humanoids. Their sexual characteristics and anatomical structures were believed to be an implication of monogamous mating. This sexual attitude led to provisioning behaviour of the humanoid male species wherein their upper limbs were used in giving food stuffs to their mates. Even Charles Darwin constructed a model in providing a logical explanation for humanoid origin and bipedalism. He postulated that bipedalism resulted from the terrestrial adaptation of quadrupedal species and the necessity for subsistence, required to giving freedom for hands to accommodate other activities such as making tools for food hunting (Hawks, 2005). Aside from this, he also assumed that the habitat change from woodland to savannah paved the way for the less importance of climbing. Then, other researchers augmented Darwin’s assumptions by elaborating that living in savannah made early humanoids to be vigilant over tall grasses and adapt in its sultry condition (Hawks, 2005). Thus, bipedalism provided them means for adjustments at these conditions by standing up leading to less sun exposure of the body. This model became the savannah model or killer-ape hypothesis. The aquatic theory and the theory on the use of tools are deemed to offer unreliable explanation (Johanson, n. d. ). Most of the time, primates avoid water due to ferocious predators. On the other hand, stone tools only appear around 2. 6 million years ago as contrasted with the 4. 2 million year-evidence of bipedal locomotion. According to Johanson (n. d. ), it is much better for the theorists to look not into the reason for the upright posture of our ancestors but rather on the advantages for the early humanoids that resulted to a behavioral change from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. Videan (2002) tested the different hypotheses for bipedalism (cited in Dhingra and Jablonski, 2004). The Carry Hypothesis described bipedalism as an adaptive means in the exploration of natural resources while carrying children, tools or foodstuffs. The Forage Hypothesis viewed it as a means towards the food gathering facilitation. Also, the notion that bipedalism gives animal species a sharp sense of sight in order to find good habitats; prey or escape from a predator is called as Vigilance Hypothesis. Display Hypothesis on the other hand, explained bipedalism as a gesture of threat for animal species. Based on the result of this study, Videan (2002) successfully correlated Carry, Vigilance, and Forage Hypotheses towards environmental adaptation of animal species. Nevertheless, the Display Hypothesis gave explanation for the sexual attraction among animal species. Dhingra and Jablonski (2004) scrutinized the bipedalism in several animal species like lizards, birds, kangaroos, and dinosaurs. They concluded that bipedalism resulted from animal’s natural attempt to adapt to their changing environment such as in escaping from predators or catching a prey, and in giving way to bodily parts for other functions like the forelimbs in humanoids for feeding and wings of the birds for flying. According to Stanford (2006), arboreal bipedal gait is different from arboreal quadrupedal stance for he observed that while feeding in tree crowns, Bwindi chimpanzees changed smoothly from four-legged to three-legged and even two-legged posture. This shift may have occurred in early humanoids. Modern gorillas are terrestrially adapted but based on observations; even adult male gorillas climb into tall trees for food. Thus, it is also possible for early humanoids to adapt a variety of bipedalism based on their ecological conditions. More than this, few evidences speak for terrestrial adaptation of modern chimpanzees considering the fact that they used to travel primarily on the ground and stay on trees only for sleeping or feeding purposes. These observations may denote the possibility of behavioral plasticity and arboreality in early humanoids. Based on the review conducted by Richmond, Begun, and Strait (2001), about the different studies on bipedalism, humans evolved from knuckle-walking and climbing ancestor as portrayed by evidences. These include terrestrial characteristics in the hands and feet, climbing skeletal structure, and knuckle-walking attributes in the wrist and hands. These features narrowed down the list of theories concerning bipedalism. Evidences from the paleobiology and paleoenvironments weakened the postulates based on monogamous social structure and open savanna-based bipedalism hypotheses. Rather, they suggested giving more importance on hypotheses based on food acquisition and carriage and a deep anatomical examination on the extant anthropoid behaviors. Conclusion No single factor may completely explain the origin of bipedalism. Perhaps the concoction of the factors considered in each theory that are deemed to be valid may provide much reliable reason for bipedal locomotion. The lack of complete knowledge on the anatomical structure of the early humanoids is a great burden in gaining a complete understanding on the origin of this locomotion (Hawks, 2005). Perhaps, a simple way of explaining bipedalism is that bipedal locomotion evolved as a result from the changes in the environment or social structure that is due to the availability of dietary resources to sustain life. It is hypothesized that in the late Miocene period, hominid food sources dispersed in some areas which forced hominids to travel, thus, led to the development of locomotion anatomical structures (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). References Bipedalism. Human Evolution. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. stanford. edu/~harryg/protected/chp15. htm Dhingra, P. and Jabslonski. (2004). Comparative Bipedalism – how the rest of the animal kingdom walks on two legs. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. philosophistry. com/static/bipedalism. html Hawks, J. (2005). Why be bipedal? Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://johnhawks. net/weblog/topics/bipedalism/why_be_bipedal. html Hunt, K. D. (1994). The Evolution of Human Bipedality. Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 183-202. Johanson, D. (n. d. ). What the Evidence Suggests. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/allfours/bipe-johanson. html Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The Origins of Man. Science, 211, 341-348. Richmon, B. G. , Begun, D. R. , and Strait D. S. (2001). Origin of Human Bipedalism: The Knuckle-Walking Hypothesis Revisited. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 44, 70-105.

The Pros and Cons of Affirmative Action Essay - 3458 Words

Affirmative action has been the topic of debate for many years. It has been controversial because it has been said to be a form of reverse discrimination. This paper will discuss the purpose behind affirmative action, as well as, its various strengths and weaknesses. Also, this paper will look at the following issues surrounding affirmative action such as the incompetency myth ( are companies hiring less qualified people?), the impact on employment (what has changed in the work place?), the impact on women (how have their lives changed?) and the impact on employment law (what documents back up affirmative action?). Lastly, a discussion of affirmative action on an international scale, and what international documents have to say about†¦show more content†¦(Goldman, 1976, p. 181) An affirmative action program is a management tool designed to ensure equal employment opportunity. A central premise underlying affirmative action is that, absent discrimination, over time a contract ors workforce, generally, will reflect the gender, racial and ethnic profile of the labour pools from which the contractor recruits and selects. This section will be outlining the weaknesses of affirmative action or the arguments against it. Affirmative Action is supposed to be a program designed to end racism, but isnt it really justifying racism by its own actions. Its policies judge people solely on skin color and gender. That is discrimination in itself. Is discrimination the solution to resolving past discrimination? No, its not. No program can be considered good when it hurts others. Affirmative Action tried to help minorities and women, but in the process, reverse discrimination has taken place. Now, white males are discriminated against. This can not be an affirmative program if there is a form of discrimination involved. Instead of choosing a candidate for a job or for school admission, because of ones color or gender, it should be because of their talents and abilities. The best any colored male or female should be selected for the job, or to get accepted into school. Why should some people get special preferen ces overShow MoreRelatedPros And Cons Of Affirmative Action1548 Words   |  7 PagesAffirmative action is defined as â€Å"an active effort to improve the employment or educational opportunities of members of minority groups and women sought to achieve a multicultural staff through affirmative action; also: a similar effort to promote the rights or progress of other disadvantaged persons† (Affirmative Action, n.d.). Affirmative action is a government policy that ensures that diversity is maintained in schools and in the workplace. It’s designed to assist individuals overcome previousRead MorePros and Cons of Affirmative Action Essay1185 Words   |  5 PagesAnalytical Paper 3 – Affirmative Action Introduction According to Raymond A. Noe, affirmative action is an organization’s active effort to find opportunities to hire or promote people in a particular group (Fundamentals of Human Resource Management 68). There are various arguments for and against affirmative action. Some believe that it gives certain groups of people an equal opportunity to find employment where they would otherwise be kicked under the rug. Others believe that even though it createsRead MoreAffirmative Action - Pros and Cons Essay1057 Words   |  5 PagesDiscussion of Affirmative Action Ââ€" Pros and Cons. Affirmative Action programming is seen by some as a mechanical remedy to past social conditions that penalized minority member applicants for employment, women, or persons with disabilities. In the United States, Affirmative Action has been seen as compensation for the exclusion of the African American community, in particular, and has been hoped to create upward mobility for more members of this sector. In this sense, Affirmative Action may haveRead MoreAffirmative Action in the Workplace997 Words   |  4 PagesAffirmative Action in the Workplace Negative and Positive Rebecca Mikell Human Resources BUS362 Affirmative action in this time and place is a very hard area to keep in place when it comes to keeping jobs even at work for the employees. Sometimes this type of equality in the working world can be good and sometimes it can be bad, but it depends on how it is used that really makes how a person can feel when it comes to this type of treatment of employees no matter what color or sexRead MoreCritique of Ada and Affirmative Action Paper751 Words   |  4 PagesCritique of ADA and Affirmative Action Paper BSHS/422 September 3, 2012 Susan Sandmann Critique of ADA and Affirmative Action Paper Discrimination within the place of work has been a concern for a long time now. Despite the fact that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits companies from showing favoritism to employees on account of their sex, age, race, and disability. Various employers continue to demonstrate this style of performance through the hiring procedure. American DisabilitiesRead MoreAda and Affirmative Action Essay1000 Words   |  4 PagesADA and Affirmative Action The United States of America is a culturally diverse place. There are people from all over the world living in here. There are people from different cultures, people with different religious and moral standards and beliefs, and people from different races and of different ethnicities. There are also people living amongst us that face special circumstances such as being physically or mentally disabled, challenged by a chronic illness or even sexual orientation. ThroughoutRead MoreAffirmative Action : An Unfair Advantage For Minorities1198 Words   |  5 PagesAffirmation Action Produces Negative Reactions In the early 1960’s, President Kennedy issued an executive order to ensure that government contractors hire and treat employees without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin. This executive order was issued so that all would have equal opportunities when qualified especially in regard to higher education and employment. However, it wasn’t until President Johnson issued his executive order in 1965 that it was developed and enforced. AffirmativeRead MoreAdvantages and Disadvantages of Affirmative Action Essay1667 Words   |  7 PagesEssay The Affirmative Action Debate Affirmative Action Defined Affirmative Action can be defined as â€Å"positive steps taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment, education, and business from which they have been historically excluded (Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)†. However because those steps involve â€Å"preferential† selection affirmative action generates intense controversy (Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Affirmative Action (Negative)Read MoreAffirmative Action : Is It Really Necessary Today?1347 Words   |  6 PagesJavier Santana March 23, 2017 English 103 Affirmative Action, Affirmative action, it remains present today but is it really necessary in today’s society? Affirmative action is an action favoring those who have suffered from discrimination either past or presently. It was put in place at a time when it was absolutely necessary in society and it was to give people of color the same opportunities as the white majority, the intention was to become more open-minded as a country and inclusive of allRead MoreLegal Writing1315 Words   |  6 PagesAffirmative Action College Admissions 2 Abstract Affirmative action has been a strong subject of discussion and debate for more than 30 years. Its use in college admissions has even been heard and ruled by the U.S. Supreme Court. Affirmative action is in essence, a policy or procedure developed by numerous institutions of higher learning to attempt to diversify their student bodies racially and by ethnicity. Looking closer at this procedure will display the advantages and disadvantages of

Importance of African American Literature Addressing the...

The role of African American literature in recent years has been to illuminate for the modern world the sophistication and beauty inherent in their culture as well as the constant struggle they experience in the oppressive American system. When writers such as Langston Hughes, W.E.B. DuBois and Alice Walker present their material, they manage to convey to a future world the great depth of feeling and meaning their particular culture retained as compared with the culture of their white counterparts. Without this attempt at preservation, much of the richness of this community might have been lost or forgotten. At the same time, they illuminated some of the problems inherent within their society, including lack of education, lack of†¦show more content†¦This imagery includes â€Å"splinters, / And boards torn up, / And places with no carpet on the floor† (4-6). The character’s language paints a very real picture of an old and dangerous stairway that provides l ittle in the way of support and is constantly threatening harm. The details such as splinters force one to think of sudden sharp pains in unexpected places while the torn up boards introduce ideas of sudden instability and lean times. The road of life has not been full of comfort either, as the carpet is thin or even missing from entire segments, but still the older woman continued to climb, â€Å"And reachin’ landin’s, / And turnin’ corners, / And sometimes goin’ in the dark† (10-12). The life depicted thus provides few safe havens in the form of ‘landin’s’, if all the boards are in place, but more frequently prove difficult in their own way as they introduce corners and sections that must be navigated completely in ignorance. Picturing trying to climb this twisting stairway, it is easy to see how this life has been littered with all kinds of difficult trials and tribulations, but also sprinkled with comfort in the idea tha t the floor was covered with carpet sometimes and rest in the concept that she came across landings sometimes. The language used by the old woman further supports theShow MoreRelatedThe Narrative Of Frederick Douglass, The Souls Of Black Folks876 Words   |  4 Pages Education has long been at the core of every African American story. Historically, this ideal represented freedom and empowerment and at the same time, fought against white oppression, segregation, and enslavement. Education in every African American experience denotes a haunting yet positive connotation and vestiges of its impact can still seen in our contemporary lives. Through this essay, we explore the how education affected both slaves and whites alike and how the controversy of educationRead MoreCaribbean American Women1256 Words   |  5 Pagesinefficient the current theoretical practices have become. She states that scholars are intellectually trapped by the hierarchical systems within scholarship. Her main critique comes from the reality of upcoming scholars having to laboriously quote Euro-American male scholars in order to establish them within their field. Under this standard what we find is that in the constant referencing of these European scholars the racial and cu ltural hierarchy of western society is sustained. Boyce suggests that commonRead MoreToni Morrison s Song Of Solomon1087 Words   |  5 Pages Toni Morrison’s novel Song of Solomon was written in 1977, revolving around the African-American man and his life in the city of Michigan. Song of Solomon is the third novel of Morrison which gave her the wider recognition. Chronologically the novel is structured as the narrative from the childhood to the adulthood. The novel shows the traits of the African culture, which represents in the adequate and ruthless story of the community delivered by the example of the single family. However, the authorRead MoreAfrocentricity, Race, and Reason1502 Words   |  7 PagesAfrocentricity, Race, and Reason: A Response to the Literature Chizi Igwe Introduction to Africana Studies 101, Section 2 Dr. Kalubi May 8, 2010 Afrocentricity, Race, and Reason: A Response to the Literature Background Information The philosophy of Afrocentricity is not a recent development. Its history can be traced to many precursor theories and ideologies. There were many intellectuals who have researched and theorized about Afrocentricity during its development. These intellectualsRead MoreHealth Disparities Of The United States : Social Class, Race, Ethnicity, And Health1606 Words   |  7 PagesArticle/Publication Critique This year being an election year means that the American people are confronted with many issues and disparities that plague our nation. One of these hot button topics is that of healthcare. The United States is the only developed nation without a universal healthcare system, but spends the most for health services. With so many Americans lacking the adequate care needed or facing bankruptcy due to piling medical bills, one must look at the health disparities that areRead MoreThe Importance Of Being A Black Woman Essay1632 Words   |  7 Pagespublishing her works in 1968, a volume of poetry called First Cities. Throughout her life, she was a poet, author, feminist, and civil rights activist. Most of her works explored the concept of being a black woman in this society; therefore her literature and theories were based on her experiences. Race, sexuality, and gender were her main focal points throughout her career. When speaking from a feminist perspective, Lorde based her thoughts o n the â€Å"theory of difference, which focuses on the binaryRead MoreAnalysis of a Poem â€Å"We wear the mask† Essay936 Words   |  4 PagesAmber Davis Professor Quirk Literature 101 February 28, 2013 We Wear the Mask The lyric poem â€Å"We wear the mask† by Paul Laurence Dunbar is a poem about the African American race, and how they had to conceal their unhappiness and anger from whites. This poem was written in 1895, which is around the era when slavery was abolished. Dunbar, living in this time period, was able to experience the gruesome effects of racism, hatred and prejudice against blacks at its worst. Using literary techniquesRead MoreCertain Populations Use Mental Health Care Services More than Others3227 Words   |  13 Pages Not only has the need for literature increased, but the need for training programs has been identified in assisting on in multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills (Sue, Arrendondo, McDavis, 1992). A growing body of research suggests that understanding diverse cultural backgrounds and how this might affect the therapeutic process is essential for counseling effectiveness and increasing the utilization of counseling services, especially in the Africa n American community. Early theoristsRead MoreArt or Propaganda? - a comparison between Alain Locke and W.E.B.Dubois5435 Words   |  22 Pageswanted to do something against racism, they wanted to show that the African - Americans dont have to feel inferior. Writing in the April, 1915, issue of Crisis, DuBois said: In art and literature we should try to loose the tremendous emotional wealth of the Negro and the dramatic strength of his problems through writing ... and other forms of art. We should resurrect forgotten ancient Negro art and history, and we should set the black man before the world as both a creative artist and a strong subjectRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance s Influence On People s Views On African American Lifestyles Through Poetry Essay2428 Words   |  10 Pageson people’s views on African-Americans across the United States. The Harlem Renaissance created a new Black cultural identity through literature, music, theater, art, and politics. One of the leading voices was Langston Hughes, a writer whom wrote realistic portrayals, both suffering and victories of African-American lifestyles through poetry, short stories, novels, and plays. Through short, effective, and expressive words, Langston Hughes’s poetry promoted African-American culture and also addressed