Ivanhoe By Walter Scott Essays - Films, British Films,

Ivanhoe By Walter Scott While reading the book Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott I have come to the conclusion that Scott criticizes the church a lot. By some of the quotes by various characters show that he has some type of grudge towards the church. In the following paragraphs I will give several examples of his criticism. One example of the criticism of the church is when the Grand Master was talking at the trial. He said: "You are aware that we might well have refused this woman the benefit of the trail by combat; but, though a Jewess and an unbeliever, she is also a stranger and defenseless, and God forbid that she should ask the benefit of our mild laws and that should be refused to her" This is just one of many that the Grand Master is accusing and not letting the trial be fair because Rebecca is a Jew. This shows that many of the churchman would lie to save their one life. I am led to believe that the only reason why they turned Rebecca in for being a witch is because they wanted to save one of their own (Brian). Another example of the criticism of the church is the appearance of Brian and Brother Aymer. They both seemed to be rich and since all people involved in the church are supposed to live with fewer advantages they aren't supposed to be rich. We knew that they were rich because the brother had many servants and people with him. The brother was also over weight so it should that he indulged a lot even though he wasn't supposed to. Then when Wamba tricked them by saying one direction and pointing the other. Scott was trying to say that obviously the two churchman that Wamba encountered were not that bright. Then there was the time when Ulrica was talking to Cedric about her past. She said: "This castle, for ten years, has opened to no priest save the debauched Norman chaplain who partook the nightly revels of Front-de-Boeuf, and he has been long gone to render an account of his stewardship. But thou art a Saxon---a Saxon priest, and I have one question to ask of thee" Then she goes on saying how priests have come and gone not even noticing the pain she was going through. Since Ulrica's past was so awful she has always has always hated her because they have never helped her when she needed them the most. Though in Ivanhoe there were many examples of criticism but it would take awhile to name all of them. It was obvious that Scott didn't exactly like the church. The strange thing that I keep on thinking about is why he didn't like the church. I think that there is probably a good reason but most people don't even know about it. Still he made his point in the book.

Free Essays on Superman

Epic Hero â€Å"Faster than a speeding bullet! More powerful than a locomotive! Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound!† Standing at six feet three inches, and 235 pounds, Clark Kent is the one and only Superman. Conceived on the doomed planet Krypton, scientist Jor-El sent his son Kal-El on a hyper light rocket off into space. The tiny rocket landed on earth and was recovered by a Kansas farming couple, Jonathan and Martha Kent. They found the tiny infant who was an orphan and decided they should adopt him. While Clark was growing older, he began realizing his special abilities. He was able to fly at the age of 17 and by the age of 18, Clark began to travel the world to learn more about his powers and he started to secretly help people. Clark Kent’s Kryptonian body acts as a solar battery absorbing solar energy, which can be used as various remarkable powers. If Earth had a red sun like Krypton’s, Clark wouldn’t have his powers. Using his powers causes Clark to use up his stored yellow sun energy. He can loose his powers if he expends a lot of energy quickly, or if he spends too much time away from the yellow sun while on outer space. Superman’s powers include: Strength-Varies depending on his energy levels; Superman is one of the strongest Superheroes in Earth, even capable of lifting an airplane. Flight- He is able to defy gravity with his super-speed. Invulnerability- From years of exposure to yellow solar energy has caused Clark’s Kryptonian body to become almost indestructible; his costume acts as a protective shield. Super breath- After inhaling deeply, he can send the air as a powerful wind. Super hearing-He can detect a single voice in one city. Vision- He can detect electromagnets from X-Ray vision, I R Vision, microscopic vision, telescopic vision, and heat vision. Besides using up his solar energy, Superman has two main weaknesses: Super Science (sometimes known as Magic), and kryptonite... Free Essays on Superman Free Essays on Superman Epic Hero â€Å"Faster than a speeding bullet! More powerful than a locomotive! Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound!† Standing at six feet three inches, and 235 pounds, Clark Kent is the one and only Superman. Conceived on the doomed planet Krypton, scientist Jor-El sent his son Kal-El on a hyper light rocket off into space. The tiny rocket landed on earth and was recovered by a Kansas farming couple, Jonathan and Martha Kent. They found the tiny infant who was an orphan and decided they should adopt him. While Clark was growing older, he began realizing his special abilities. He was able to fly at the age of 17 and by the age of 18, Clark began to travel the world to learn more about his powers and he started to secretly help people. Clark Kent’s Kryptonian body acts as a solar battery absorbing solar energy, which can be used as various remarkable powers. If Earth had a red sun like Krypton’s, Clark wouldn’t have his powers. Using his powers causes Clark to use up his stored yellow sun energy. He can loose his powers if he expends a lot of energy quickly, or if he spends too much time away from the yellow sun while on outer space. Superman’s powers include: Strength-Varies depending on his energy levels; Superman is one of the strongest Superheroes in Earth, even capable of lifting an airplane. Flight- He is able to defy gravity with his super-speed. Invulnerability- From years of exposure to yellow solar energy has caused Clark’s Kryptonian body to become almost indestructible; his costume acts as a protective shield. Super breath- After inhaling deeply, he can send the air as a powerful wind. Super hearing-He can detect a single voice in one city. Vision- He can detect electromagnets from X-Ray vision, I R Vision, microscopic vision, telescopic vision, and heat vision. Besides using up his solar energy, Superman has two main weaknesses: Super Science (sometimes known as Magic), and kryptonite...

Word Choice Where, Were and Were - Proofeds Writing Tips

Word Choice Where, Were and Were - Proofeds Writing Tips Word Choice: Where, We’re and Were Although where, were and were each have completely different meanings, some people seem to think they are interchangeable. However, making this error in a piece of academic writing will look bad to your reader, especially if you make repeated errors throughout your paper. Such mistakes can even undermine the content of your argument, so it’s a good idea to get a handle on what each of these words mean and when you should use them. Where (Location) The word where means is used when identifying a geographical place, location or circumstance. For instance, it can be used to ask a question about the position of something, like Where is my book? Alternatively, it can be used to specify or describe the location of something, as in, I left my book in the library where I do my research. Here, for example, identifying the where in the sentence shows that we are referring to a specific library (the one where the speaker does her research). In a more abstract sense, where can also be used to suggest holding a particular position or point of view on something. For example, we might say This is where we stand on the issue. We’re (We Are) The word we’re is a contraction of the two words we and are. It would be used in a sentence like this: We’re going to the grocery store. Please note, however, that contractions like were are generally considered informal, so shouldnt normally be used in academic writing. Were The word were is related to the verb be used when discussing the past. To be specific, it is the second person singular past, plural past, and past subjunctive of be. This might seem confusing, but if we break down what it actually means it becomes easier to understand. The second person singular pronoun, for instance, is you, while the plural past tense includes we, you and they. In all of these cases, were is effectively the past tense of are: Present Tense Past Tense First Person (Singular) I am†¦ I was†¦ First Person (Plural) We are†¦ We were†¦ Second Person (Singular and Plural) You are†¦ You were†¦ Third Person (Singular) He/she is†¦ He/she was†¦ Third Person (Plural) They are†¦ They were†¦ Were is also correct when referring to a plural noun in the past tense. It would therefore be used in a past tense sentence like As we were walking in the garden, butterflies were dancing through the air. The other usage of were which is as the past subjunctive of be and something which people often get wrong. The past subjunctive is mainly used when referring to a counterfactual possibility (i.e., something which could be true but isnt). For example, we could say, Were I to use grammar correctly, my grades would improve. The mistake people make here is using was instead of were in statements that start with if regarding the future. For instance, while many would say: If I was to pass my exam, I would be very happy. This is technically wrong. The correct formulation would be: If I were to pass my exam, I would be very happy.

Cal report week 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cal report week 3 - Essay Example These were named as radical humanism or subjective change ; radical structuralism which is to do with the many conflicts in society; interpretive sociology which deals with the interpretation of society ; and functionalist sociology which sees society as consisting of many interacting parts. It was discovered within the group how these ideas all relate to learning and knowledge within organizations, and also how they could be applied to particular difficulties. The various paradigms can be utilized individually or more than one can used at one time. To add a greater degree of understanding and the ability to apply these ideas metaphors can be used as shown by Morgan in 1980 and later by Hassard ( 1991) It is necessary to choose those which best fit our particular circumstances and reflect on them. As I took part in the week 3 learning group I began to discover how my the structure of my company fits into the various models of management research and how to use that knowledge in order to create the most applicable knowledge. I am now attempting to fit the paradigms to my work situation and see how compatible the two are. Also , using the right language , as described by Van Maanen (1991) will make it easier to produce convincing arguments.  Together with the use of metaphor this will help me to produce suitable solutions for my organization. The main aim this week was to be able to turn theories into practice. This means translating the models into actual work tasks and, by using the correct knowledge creation , enabling the most beneficial decisions to be made. HASSARD,J. 1991, Mulitple Paradigmsand Organizational Analysis : A Case Study, Organization Studies, 12 ( 2) pages 275-299, EBSCOhost, available from http:web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liv.ac.uk/ehost/detail?hid=105&sid=446561bf-3152-405d-87fd-f6972fd2d38e%40sessionmgr115&vid=5&data=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGI2ZzY29wZT1zaXRI#db=buh&AN=593166, accessed 25th July 2011 MORGAN,G. 1980, Paradigms, metaphors and

Compare the view of class in Homer, Boccaccio, Austen Essay

Compare the view of class in Homer, Boccaccio, Austen - Essay Example With his kindness, Odysseus wins the total loyalty of his thankful slaves. In Homer’s poem there are moments when Odysseus is described as inconsiderate and stubborn. He loses his caution when he is elated by his triumph over the strong Kyklops Polyphemos. Because of his temporary loss of common sense his puts his men in great danger. Despite his crew unwillingness, Odysseus embarks into the Kyklops’ island. There are other scenes in which Odysseus shows his selfish nature, for example the moment when he sends his crew to the unknown land of Kirke. He does this to avoid a potential danger which puts his life in peril. Although the initial description that Mentor gives is true, to an extend he idolizes Odysseus and portrays him in idealized fashion. In comparison, the protagonist in Dante’s Inferno is Dante himself. The novel is written from first-person perspective, which indicates that the character Dante is narrating the story. In Inferno we have to distinguish between the author Dante and the protagonist Dante. The author creates his character as a fictional one. The novel represents a journey of the protagonist Dante, written as if it was happening to the author Dante. At the beginning the protagonist has pity for the sinners in Hell. He shows how merciful he is. Then he realizes that the sinners deserve to be punished for their wrongdoing. Here the protagonist is described as ruthless. Dante’s character undergoes a noticeable change throughout his journey. His compassion for the sinners reduces as he goes down through Hell. The protagonist is also described as curious and caution at the same time, because he asks Virgil for advice every step on his way. Dante’s character is also adventurous during his journey. He is not afraid of what is happening around him and shows no fear. The protagonist is also wise, because he knows that he can not be hurt, and he can prevent the suffering that the sinners experience. In Emma, Jane

Semi Empirical Formula For Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay

Semi Empirical Formula For Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay Abstract A Semi empirical formula for both phase space factor and Nuclear Matrix Element (NME) is developed for neutrinoless double beta decay, and the formula is used to compute the neutrinoless double beta decay half lives. The computed half lives for neutrinoless double beta decay are compared with the corresponding experimental values and with those predicted by QRPA model. The semi empirical formula predictions are found to be in good agreement with experimental data. The semi empirical formula is used to predict neutrinoless double beta decay of various isotopes Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm that exhibiting single beta decay. As our semi empirical formula predictions agree with the experimental data we hope that the present work will be useful for the future experiments. Keyword: Neutrinoless double beta decay, Nuclear Matrix Element Introduction Double beta decay is a radioactive decay process where a nucleus releases two beta rays as a single process. Here two neutrons in the nucleus are converted in to two protons and in the process two electrons and two electron antineutrinos are emitted. In order for beta decay to be possible the final nucleus must have larger binding energy than the original nucleus. Double beta decay is difficult to study in most practically interesting cases, because both beta decay and double beta decay are possible, with probability favouring beta decay. The double beta decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change the mass number A. More than 60 naturally occurring isotopes are capable of undergoing double beta decay. Double beta decay is of two types; the two neutrino and neutrinoless double beta decay. The two neutrino double beta decay [2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½)] which involves the transformation of two neutrons into two protons conserves not only the electric charge but also the lepton number. On the other hand neutrinoless double beta decay [2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½)] violates lepton number conservation and is therefore forbidden in the standard electroweak theory. According to this theory neutrinos are massless. The observation of neutrino mass and oscillation is a clear example of a phenomenon at variance with the standard model. There are different models for explaining the double beta decay process. Among them, two methods are mainly used to calculate Nuclear Matrix Elements (NME) for 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decays. One is the family of Quasi particle Random Phase Approximation (QRPA) [1]. This method has been used by different groups and varieties of techniques are employed with results for most of the possible emitters [2]. The other method concerned to double beta decay process is the interacting shell model (ISM) [3]. It has been shown that as the difference in deformation between parent and daughter grows, the NME’s of both the neutrinoless and two neutrino mode decreases rapidly. The interest in double beta decay spans more than six decades. In 1937 Racah [4] following the fundamental suggestion of Majorana [5], discussed the possibility of a neutrinoless transformation of two neutrons into two protons plus two electrons. Even earlier Geoppert-Mayer [6] evaluated the decay rate of 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) mode and realized that the corresponding half lives could exceed 1020years. Furry [7] shortly afterwards estimated that 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) should be much faster than 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) decay. Thus the stage was set for the realization that observation of the 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay would establish that the neutrino is a massive Majorana particle. In 1982 J. Schechter-Valle while regarding 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay suggested the existence of Majorana mass of the neutrino in the frame work of Gauge theories [8]. In 1984 Fiorini et al [9] introduced a program to develop low temperature detectors for 2ÃŽ ² decay search. Next year Doi et al [10] made a fundamental theoretical analysis of 2ÃŽ ² deca y to obtain the main formulae for probability of decay, energy and angular electron spectra. In 1986 using QRPA model Vogel et al [11] gave satisfactory agreement between theoretical and experimental 2ÃŽ ²(2ÃŽ ½) half life values. Neutrinoless double beta decay is of great interest for studying the fundamental properties of neutrino beyond the standard electro-weak theory. High sensitivity 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) studies are the unique and practical ways for studying the Majorana nature of neutrinos, the neutrino mass spectrum, the absolute neutrino mass scale, the majorana CP phases and other fundamental properties of neutrinos in the foreseeable future. The first experiment [12] to claim 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) is the Klapdor, HM experiment done in the year 2001. Numerous experiments like COBRA, GERDA etc have been carried out to search neutrinoless double beta decay and 48Ca, 76Ge, 82Se, 96Zr, 100Mo, 116Cd, 128Te, 150Nd, 238U are some of the isotopes exhibiting neutrinoless double beta decay [13-17]. For the double beta decay processes, two crucial ingredients are the phase space factors and the Nuclear Matrix Elements (NME). A general theory of phase space factors was developed by Doi et al. [18, 19] following the previous work of Primakoff and Rosen [20], and Konopinski [21]. It was reformulated by Tomoda [22] by approximating the electron wave functions at the nuclear radius and without inclusion of electron screening. The Nuclear Matrix Element depends on the nuclear structure of the nuclei involved in the decay. The expression for Nuclear Matrix Element can be written in general as the sum of three components [23] as (1) Where, , , are the Gamow-Teller, Fermi and tensor components respectively. is the axial vector coupling constant and is the vector coupling constant. The present work aims to develop a semi empirical formula for both phase space factor and Nuclear Matrix Element for computing the neutrinoless double beta decay half life. By using this formula we would like to predict the possibility of 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay from various isotopes exhibiting single beta decay. The details of the semi empirical formula are given in Section 2 and results, discussion and conclusion are given in Section 3. The semi empirical formula In the standard scenario, when 2ÃŽ ²(0ÃŽ ½) decay process occurs by exchange of light Majorana neutrinos between two nucleons inside the nucleus, and in the presence of left handed weak interactions, the life time expression can be written as a product of three factors and is given as [24] (2) Where G0ÃŽ ½ is the phase space factor for this decay mode, is the effective neutrino mass parameter, me is the electron mass and M0ÃŽ ½ are the Nuclear Matrix Elements depending on the nuclear structure of the nuclei involved in the decay. The phase space factor depends on the energy decay QÃŽ ²ÃŽ ² and nuclear charge Z and studied the dependence of phase space factor with ZQ3 and Z2Q6 for various isotopes undergoing neutrinoless double beta decay. From the observed dependence of phase space factor taken from ref [25], with ZQ3 and Z2Q6 we have developed a semi empirical formula for the phase space factor. Using ZQ3, Z2Q6 and Z3Q9 as variables, a new formula is obtained and is given as, (3) The constants are, , , Due to the two-body nature of the transition operator, the NMEs can also be expressed as a sum of product of two-body transition densities (TBTDs) and matrix elements of the two-body transition operators for two-particle states. We have studied the dependence of nuclear matrix element values taken from [26] with Z-1/3 for various isotopes undergoing neutrinoless double beta decay and a new formula is obtained by making least-squares fit to the nuclear matrix elements data and is given as, (4) The constants are, , ,, , , The comparison of the computed nuclear matrix elements using the present formula with the values of Ref [26] and comparison of computed phase space factor with the values of Ref [25] are shown in Table 1. Results, discussion and conclusion The Q value for double beta decay of mother nuclide with mass mm to the daughter nuclide with mass md is given by the mass difference [27] which in turn can be written as a function of frequency ratio and the electron mass me; (5) In the present work Q values are computed using the experimental binding energies of Audi and Wapstra [28]. The present empirical formula is applied for all the observed neutrinoless double beta decay isotopes. Column 7 of Table 1 represents the computed half-lives for neutrinoless double beta decay of various isotopes and is compared with the experimental values given in column 8 and QRPA values [26] in column 9. It is found from the table that our formula predictions are in good agreement with the experimental values and the QRPA values. The value of ÃŽ ½> is taken as 50meV and is obtained from Rodin et al [25]. We have applied the present formula for computing the phase space factor, Nuclear Matrix Element and half lives for various isotopes that exhibiting single beta decay. Tables 2 represents the computed Q values, Phase space factors, Nuclear Matrix Elements and half lives for neutrinoless double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm isotopes. As our semi empirical formula prediction agree with the experimental data we hope that our prediction on neutrinoless double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm isotopes will be a guide for future experiments.  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­ Table 1. The computed, and for neutrino less double beta decay of various isotopes and their comparison with the experimental, QRPA and Ref [26] values _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Table 2. The computed Q values, Phase space factors, nuclear matrix elements and the predicted half lives for neutrino less double beta decay of various Ca, Ge, Se, Zr, Mo, Pd, Cd, Sn, Te, Xe, Nd and Sm, Gd and Pt isotopes ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Table 2. Continued†¦.. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 103Mo 6408.8 1.10330E-11 3.47678 7.83E+23 104Mo 7759.0 6.71620E-11 3.47678 1.29E+23 105Mo 8588.0 1.72446E-10 3.47678 5.01E+22 106Mo 10067 7.43636E-10 3.47678 1.16E+22 107Mo 11430 2.37009E-09 3.47678 3.65E+21 109Pd 901.0 1.92669E-15 2.56879 8.22E+27 110Pd 2004.0 7.81588E-15 2.56879 2.03E+27 111Pd 3253.5 2.48567E-14 2.56879 6.37E+26 112Pd 4244.5 2.49383E-13 2.56879 6.35E+25 113Pd 5359.3 2.60657E-12 2.56879 6.07E+24 114Pd 6523.9 1.74643E-11 2.56879 9.06E+23 115Pd 7690.5 8.20373E-11 2.56879 1.93E+23 116Pd 8759.0 2.73683E-10 2.56879 5.78E+22 117Pd 9895.0 8.38279E-10 2.56879 1.89E+22 118Pd 11239 2.67934E-09 2.56879 5.91E+21 114Cd 540.1 1.30076E-15 2.37189 1.43E+28 115Cd 1945.5 7.60027E-15 2.37189 2.44E+27 116Cd 2809.1 1.46594E-14 2.37189 1.27E+27 117Cd 3975.0 1.46594E-14 2.37189 1.25E+26 118Cd 4947.1 1.48733E-13 2.37189 1.37E+25 119Cd 6158.4 1.35555E-12 2.37189 1.61E+24 120Cd 7131.1 1.15360E-11 2.37189 4.01E+23 121Cd 8144.1 4.62494E-11 2.37189 1.17E+23 122Cd 9215.9 1.59314E-10 2.37189 3.73E+22 123Cd 10510.5 4.97662E-10 2.37189 1.12E+22 124Cd 11526.8 1.65584E-09 2.37189 4.84E+2

Evolution of Bipedality in Humans Essay

Bipedalism is a capacity, mostly associated to humans, to use two legs in locomotion. Its origin has been given importance and served as a topic of long debate among experts due to the possibility that this form of locomotion gave way for the development of modern human characteristics. Thus, a lot of theories were proposed and established in order to provide the logical explanation on its origin and development. The burden of dealing with this classical issue lies on the fact that locomotion is an activity that can not be fossilized. However, the Australopithecus afarensis fossils, the earliest hominid from Ethiopia and Tanzania, were found to live 3 million years after the appearance of hominid lineage around 6. 5 million years ago (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). These fossils in a way may serve as evidence not only of bipedal locomotion but also hominid dental characteristics similar to apes. Bipedalism enabled humanoids to create tools used for the sustenance and defense of life and is also observed in other animal species (Dhingra and Jablonski, 2004). This trait is commonly attributed as a product of evolution for it coincided with the physiological development of the human brains. As such, bipedal locomotion has gone a very long and different history within animal kingdom. Bipedal Locomotion Human locomotion is described as a smooth flow of a series of actions including swing and stance phases (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). In the swing phase, one leg shoves off through the toe then swings in slightly flexed position. As the foot creates contact on the ground through the heel, the leg becomes and remains extended to support the body. Then, as the leg moves in the swing phase, the body moves in the stance phase. On the other hand, chimpanzees are not capable of extending their knee-joints for a straight leg in the stance phase. They exert muscular power to support their bodies while their leg flexed gait denotes lack of toe off and heel strike in the swing phase. The human anatomical structure is fully developed for terrestrial locomotion while chimpanzee anatomy is adapted for climbing and knuckle walking (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). Human anatomical adaptations include extensive and curved lower spine, a shorter and broader pelvis, a longer lower limbs and enlarged joint surface areas. In the swing phase, the weight of the body is shifted to the supporting leg while the balance is maintained at the unsupported side in the stance phase through contraction of gluteal abductor muscles in the hip. In chimpanzees, the gluteal abductors are not fully developed and their thigh bones do not slope inwards as in humans. Their feet are normally a little bit apart and in walking, they tend to shift their upper bodies from side to side so as to transfer the weight on each leg. It is a fact then that chimpanzees and gibbons can move through bipedal locomotion. Thus, as viewed by anthropologists, bipedalism is a hominid distinct adaptive capability (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). Humanoids spend less energy through bipedalism than quadrupedalism because at a normal walking speed, the legs in a forward motion swing like pendulum then bringing back the forward momentum by slowing the swing foot before the fall (Hawks, 2005). Hence, this requires less muscular activity and energy than knuckle-walking. Moreover, bipedalism raises the head which gives a sharp range vision around the environment and making hands available for carrying tools, food items or other works. However, for early humanoids, bipedalism can offer disadvantages (Hawks, 2005). Without the ability to grasp through feet makes them unsecured from their predators. The loss of grasping foot made difficult for the early humanoids to climb through tress and escape predators, and for their young in clinging to their parents. Researches Findings Biologist and anthropologists have debated over bipedalism and proposed different hypotheses for possible explanation. However, these theories have their respective strengths and weaknesses on the plausible understanding with bipedal locomotion. Most of these theories correlated bipedalism to the animal species’ ventures on the savannah areas and was supported by the discovery of Lucy, a 3. 5 feet humanoid (Johanson, n. d. ). Standing up in savannah gives stunted humanoids a vigilant view on possible threat from their predators. Standing up in reaching out for foods is another possible explanation. In addition, an upright posture may also help our ancestors in cooling their bodies against the sultry environment. In the postural feeding hypothesis of Hunt (1994), bipedalism has evolved from the early habitual bipedal locomotion of humanoids due to arboreal food gathering. The behaviour of chimpanzees and the anatomical structures of australopithecine conformed to this ecological model. Eighty percent of bipedal locomotion in chimpanzee was observed during feeding with arm-hanging stabilizing the posture. In addition, the upper body anatomical structures of australopithecines were ascribed to arboreal bipedal fruit gathering adaptation. The behavioural model of Lovejoy (1981), on the other hand, attributed bipedalism to the social, sexual and reproductive behaviours of early humanoids. Their sexual characteristics and anatomical structures were believed to be an implication of monogamous mating. This sexual attitude led to provisioning behaviour of the humanoid male species wherein their upper limbs were used in giving food stuffs to their mates. Even Charles Darwin constructed a model in providing a logical explanation for humanoid origin and bipedalism. He postulated that bipedalism resulted from the terrestrial adaptation of quadrupedal species and the necessity for subsistence, required to giving freedom for hands to accommodate other activities such as making tools for food hunting (Hawks, 2005). Aside from this, he also assumed that the habitat change from woodland to savannah paved the way for the less importance of climbing. Then, other researchers augmented Darwin’s assumptions by elaborating that living in savannah made early humanoids to be vigilant over tall grasses and adapt in its sultry condition (Hawks, 2005). Thus, bipedalism provided them means for adjustments at these conditions by standing up leading to less sun exposure of the body. This model became the savannah model or killer-ape hypothesis. The aquatic theory and the theory on the use of tools are deemed to offer unreliable explanation (Johanson, n. d. ). Most of the time, primates avoid water due to ferocious predators. On the other hand, stone tools only appear around 2. 6 million years ago as contrasted with the 4. 2 million year-evidence of bipedal locomotion. According to Johanson (n. d. ), it is much better for the theorists to look not into the reason for the upright posture of our ancestors but rather on the advantages for the early humanoids that resulted to a behavioral change from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. Videan (2002) tested the different hypotheses for bipedalism (cited in Dhingra and Jablonski, 2004). The Carry Hypothesis described bipedalism as an adaptive means in the exploration of natural resources while carrying children, tools or foodstuffs. The Forage Hypothesis viewed it as a means towards the food gathering facilitation. Also, the notion that bipedalism gives animal species a sharp sense of sight in order to find good habitats; prey or escape from a predator is called as Vigilance Hypothesis. Display Hypothesis on the other hand, explained bipedalism as a gesture of threat for animal species. Based on the result of this study, Videan (2002) successfully correlated Carry, Vigilance, and Forage Hypotheses towards environmental adaptation of animal species. Nevertheless, the Display Hypothesis gave explanation for the sexual attraction among animal species. Dhingra and Jablonski (2004) scrutinized the bipedalism in several animal species like lizards, birds, kangaroos, and dinosaurs. They concluded that bipedalism resulted from animal’s natural attempt to adapt to their changing environment such as in escaping from predators or catching a prey, and in giving way to bodily parts for other functions like the forelimbs in humanoids for feeding and wings of the birds for flying. According to Stanford (2006), arboreal bipedal gait is different from arboreal quadrupedal stance for he observed that while feeding in tree crowns, Bwindi chimpanzees changed smoothly from four-legged to three-legged and even two-legged posture. This shift may have occurred in early humanoids. Modern gorillas are terrestrially adapted but based on observations; even adult male gorillas climb into tall trees for food. Thus, it is also possible for early humanoids to adapt a variety of bipedalism based on their ecological conditions. More than this, few evidences speak for terrestrial adaptation of modern chimpanzees considering the fact that they used to travel primarily on the ground and stay on trees only for sleeping or feeding purposes. These observations may denote the possibility of behavioral plasticity and arboreality in early humanoids. Based on the review conducted by Richmond, Begun, and Strait (2001), about the different studies on bipedalism, humans evolved from knuckle-walking and climbing ancestor as portrayed by evidences. These include terrestrial characteristics in the hands and feet, climbing skeletal structure, and knuckle-walking attributes in the wrist and hands. These features narrowed down the list of theories concerning bipedalism. Evidences from the paleobiology and paleoenvironments weakened the postulates based on monogamous social structure and open savanna-based bipedalism hypotheses. Rather, they suggested giving more importance on hypotheses based on food acquisition and carriage and a deep anatomical examination on the extant anthropoid behaviors. Conclusion No single factor may completely explain the origin of bipedalism. Perhaps the concoction of the factors considered in each theory that are deemed to be valid may provide much reliable reason for bipedal locomotion. The lack of complete knowledge on the anatomical structure of the early humanoids is a great burden in gaining a complete understanding on the origin of this locomotion (Hawks, 2005). Perhaps, a simple way of explaining bipedalism is that bipedal locomotion evolved as a result from the changes in the environment or social structure that is due to the availability of dietary resources to sustain life. It is hypothesized that in the late Miocene period, hominid food sources dispersed in some areas which forced hominids to travel, thus, led to the development of locomotion anatomical structures (â€Å"Bipedalism,† 2000). References Bipedalism. Human Evolution. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. stanford. edu/~harryg/protected/chp15. htm Dhingra, P. and Jabslonski. (2004). Comparative Bipedalism – how the rest of the animal kingdom walks on two legs. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. philosophistry. com/static/bipedalism. html Hawks, J. (2005). Why be bipedal? Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://johnhawks. net/weblog/topics/bipedalism/why_be_bipedal. html Hunt, K. D. (1994). The Evolution of Human Bipedality. Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 183-202. Johanson, D. (n. d. ). What the Evidence Suggests. Retrieved November 6, 2008, from http://www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/allfours/bipe-johanson. html Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The Origins of Man. Science, 211, 341-348. Richmon, B. G. , Begun, D. R. , and Strait D. S. (2001). Origin of Human Bipedalism: The Knuckle-Walking Hypothesis Revisited. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 44, 70-105.